A network is a group of interconnected devices that can communicate with each other to share resources and information. These devices can include computers, servers, routers, switches, and more. Networks can be classified based on their size and purpose, such as LAN (Local Area Network), WAN (Wide Area Network), and MAN (Metropolitan Area Network).
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework used to understand and implement networking protocols in seven layers: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application. Each layer has specific functions and communicates with the layers directly above and below it to provide network services.
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a set of networking protocols that allow devices to communicate over the internet and other networks. TCP ensures reliable data transfer by establishing a connection and managing data flow, while IP handles addressing and routing packets to their destination.
An IP address is a unique identifier assigned to each device on a network. It allows devices to locate and communicate with each other. IP addresses come in two versions: IPv4, which uses a 32-bit format, and IPv6, which uses a 128-bit format to accommodate more devices.
A MAC (Media Access Control) address is a hardware identifier assigned to a network interface card (NIC) by the manufacturer. It is a 48-bit address expressed in hexadecimal format and is used for communication within a local network segment. Unlike IP addresses, MAC addresses do not change.
A hub, switch, and router are all networking devices, but they serve different purposes and operate at different layers of the OSI model.
| Device | Function | Data Handling | Usage |
|---|---|---|---|
| Hub | A hub is a basic networking device that operates at the Physical layer (Layer 1) of the OSI model. It connects multiple devices in a network. | Hubs broadcast incoming data packets to all connected devices, regardless of the destination address. This can lead to network inefficiencies and collisions. | Largely obsolete due to their lack of efficiency and intelligence in handling data. |
| Switch | A switch operates at the Data Link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model. It connects multiple devices and uses MAC addresses to forward data to the correct device. | Switches intelligently direct data to the intended recipient by using MAC addresses, reducing collisions and improving network efficiency. | Commonly used in modern networks for connecting devices within the same local network. |
| Router | A router operates at the Network layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model. It connects different networks and routes data between them using IP addresses. | Routers determine the best path for data packets to travel from the source to the destination, using routing tables and protocols. | Essential for connecting different networks, such as connecting a home network to the internet. |
DNS (Domain Name System) translates human-readable domain names (like www.example.com) into IP addresses that computers use to identify each other on the network. It acts as an address book for the internet, enabling users to access websites using easy-to-remember names instead of numeric IP addresses.
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) automatically assigns IP addresses and other network configuration parameters to devices on a network. This eliminates the need for manual configuration and ensures that devices have the necessary information to communicate on the network, such as IP address, subnet mask, and gateway.
Subnetting is the process of dividing a larger network into smaller, more manageable sub-networks, or subnets. This improves network performance and security by reducing broadcast traffic and limiting the scope of network issues. It involves borrowing bits from the host portion of an IP address to create additional network addresses.
Some key difference between TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol):
| Feature | TCP | UDP |
|---|---|---|
| Connection | Connection-oriented: Establishes a connection before transmitting data. | Connectionless: Sends data without establishing a connection. |
| Reliability | Reliable: Ensures data delivery with error-checking, acknowledgement, and retransmission. | Unreliable: No guarantee of data delivery, order, or error correction. |
| Flow Control | Uses flow control to manage data transmission rate between sender and receiver. | No flow control, which can lead to potential packet loss if the network is congested. |
| Overhead | Higher overhead due to additional error-checking and connection management. | Lower overhead, resulting in faster data transmission but without reliability features. |
| Data Transmission | Data is transmitted in a sequence, maintaining the order of packets. | Data is transmitted independently, and packets may arrive out of order. |
| Use Cases | Suitable for applications requiring reliable communication, such as web browsing, email, and file transfer. | Suitable for applications where speed is critical, and occasional data loss is acceptable, such as live streaming, online gaming, and voice-over IP (VoIP). |
| Header Size | Larger header size (20-60 bytes), containing fields for sequencing, acknowledgment, etc. | Smaller header size (8 bytes), with minimal fields for simplicity. |
A VLAN (Virtual Local Area Network) is a logical grouping of devices within a physical network, allowing them to communicate as if they were on the same LAN. VLANs improve network management, security, and performance by segmenting network traffic and isolating different groups of devices.
A VPN (Virtual Private Network) extends a private network across a public network, enabling secure communication and data transfer. It uses encryption and tunneling protocols to ensure the privacy and integrity of data transmitted between remote users and the private network, often used for secure remote access.
NAT (Network Address Translation) translates private IP addresses to a public IP address, allowing multiple devices on a local network to share a single public IP. Types include Static NAT (one-to-one mapping), Dynamic NAT (pool of public IPs), and PAT (Port Address Translation, many-to-one mapping).
A firewall is a network security device that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing network traffic based on predetermined security rules. It acts as a barrier between trusted and untrusted networks, protecting against unauthorized access, malware, and other security threats by filtering data packets.
Some key difference between HTTP and HTTPS.
| Feature | HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) | HTTPS (HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure) |
|---|---|---|
| Protocol | HTTP is the standard protocol for transferring web pages over the internet. | HTTPS is the secure version of HTTP, incorporating encryption for added security. |
| Security | HTTP does not provide any security features like encryption or data integrity. | HTTPS uses SSL/TLS to encrypt data, ensuring confidentiality and integrity during transmission. |
| Port | Typically operates on port 80. | Typically operates on port 443. |
| Data Encryption | Data is transmitted in plain text, making it vulnerable to interception and attacks. | Data is encrypted, making it secure against eavesdropping and man-in-the-middle attacks. |
| Certificate Requirement | Does not require a security certificate. | Requires an SSL/TLS certificate issued by a trusted Certificate Authority (CA). |
| Authentication | Provides no authentication of the communicating parties. | Provides authentication, verifying the identity of the server to ensure trustworthiness. |
| SEO Impact | No impact on SEO rankings. | Positive impact on SEO rankings, as search engines prefer secure websites. |
| Use Cases | Suitable for non-sensitive data transmission, such as informational websites. | Essential for secure data transmission, such as online banking, shopping, and login pages. |
| Performance | Slightly faster due to lack of encryption overhead. | Slightly slower due to encryption and decryption processes, but often optimized. |
An IDS monitors network traffic for suspicious activity and potential security breaches. It analyzes data packets and logs, comparing them against known attack patterns or behaviors. When a potential threat is detected, the IDS alerts network administrators, allowing them to take appropriate action to prevent or mitigate the attack.
IPsec (Internet Protocol Security) is a suite of protocols used to secure IP communications by authenticating and encrypting each IP packet. It operates at the network layer, providing end-to-end security for VPNs, protecting data integrity, confidentiality, and authenticity during transmission across potentially insecure networks.
A proxy server acts as an intermediary between client devices and the internet, handling requests on behalf of the client. It provides benefits like anonymity, security, and content filtering. Proxies can also cache frequently accessed content, improving response times and reducing bandwidth usage.
A load balancer distributes network or application traffic across multiple servers to ensure reliability and availability. It optimizes resource use, prevents server overload, and improves response times by directing requests to the most appropriate server based on predefined criteria, enhancing overall system performance.
A DMZ (Demilitarized Zone) is a separate network segment that acts as a buffer zone between an organization's internal network and the public internet. It hosts public-facing services like web and mail servers, providing an additional layer of security by isolating these services from the internal network.
BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) is an inter-domain routing protocol used to exchange routing information between different networks, or autonomous systems, on the internet. It helps determine the most efficient path for data packets, ensuring robust and scalable routing for large and complex networks.
MPLS (Multiprotocol Label Switching) is a high-performance routing technique that uses labels to direct data packets along predetermined paths. It improves traffic flow, reduces latency, and enhances network performance by enabling efficient data forwarding and prioritizing traffic based on predefined quality of service (QoS) levels.
Some key difference between Intranet and Extranet.
| Feature | Intranet | Extranet |
|---|---|---|
| Definition | An intranet is a private network accessible only to an organization's members, employees, or authorized users. | An extranet is an extension of an intranet that allows access to selected external users, such as partners, suppliers, or customers. |
| Accessibility | Restricted to internal users within an organization. | Accessible to external users with granted permissions, in addition to internal users. |
| Purpose | Facilitates internal communication, collaboration, and information sharing among employees. | Facilitates collaboration and information sharing between the organization and external stakeholders. |
| Security | High security with restricted access, typically protected by firewalls and other security measures. | High security with controlled access and additional authentication measures for external users. |
| Use Cases | Internal portals, employee directories, HR systems, internal communication tools, and document management. | Supply chain management, collaborative projects, partner portals, and customer support services. |
| Network Type | Typically uses a local area network (LAN) or a virtual private network (VPN) for internal access. | Uses secure VPN connections, dedicated leased lines, or other secure methods to connect external users. |
| Management | Managed by the organization's IT department. | Managed by the organization, often with input from external partners for access and security requirements. |
A network administrator is responsible for maintaining and managing an organization's computer networks. Their duties include configuring hardware and software, monitoring network performance, troubleshooting issues, ensuring security, managing user access, and implementing network policies to ensure smooth and secure network operations.
Routing is the process of selecting the best path for data packets to travel from the source to the destination across interconnected networks. Routers use routing tables and protocols to determine the most efficient path, ensuring data is delivered accurately and efficiently, optimizing network performance.
Network topology refers to the arrangement of various elements (links, nodes, etc.) in a computer network. Common topologies include bus, star, ring, mesh, and hybrid. The choice of topology affects the network's performance, scalability, fault tolerance, and ease of maintenance.
Some key difference between IPv4 and IPv6?
| Feature | IPv4 | IPv6 |
|---|---|---|
| Address Format | Uses a 32-bit address format, expressed in four sets of decimal numbers (e.g., 192.168.0.1). | Uses a 128-bit address format, expressed in eight sets of hexadecimal numbers (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334). |
| Address Space | Provides approximately 4.3 billion unique addresses. | Provides an exponentially larger address space, allowing for over 340 undecillion unique addresses. |
| Address Representation | Dotted-decimal notation (e.g., 192.168.0.1). | Hexadecimal notation with colons (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334). |
| Header Size | Fixed header size (20 bytes), with optional options field. | Larger fixed header size (40 bytes), with more efficient packet processing and streamlined header structure. |
| Fragmentation | Routers perform packet fragmentation when necessary. | End-to-end fragmentation is optional, with routers typically not fragmenting packets. |
| Autoconfiguration | Relies on DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) for address assignment. | Supports stateless address autoconfiguration (SLAAC) and DHCPv6 for address assignment. |
| Security | No built-in security features. | Built-in IPsec (Internet Protocol Security) support for end-to-end encryption and security. |
| NAT (Network Address Translation) | Relies heavily on NAT for conserving IPv4 address space. | NAT is not as crucial due to the abundance of available IPv6 addresses. |
| Deployment | Widely deployed but facing exhaustion of available addresses. | Adoption is increasing but still in the process of widespread deployment. |
ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) is used to map a known IP address to a MAC address within a local network. When a device needs to communicate with another device, it uses ARP to discover the recipient's MAC address, ensuring accurate data packet delivery at the Data Link layer.
SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) is used for monitoring, managing, and configuring network devices like routers, switches, and servers. It enables network administrators to collect device information, track performance, and manage faults, providing insights into network health and facilitating effective network management.
A gateway is a network node that acts as an entry and exit point for data traveling between different networks, often using different protocols. It translates data between incompatible networks, facilitating communication and data exchange, and can perform functions like protocol conversion, routing, and firewalling.
Network latency refers to the delay between a data packet being sent and received across a network. It is measured in milliseconds and affects the performance of applications, especially those requiring real-time data exchange. High latency can result from network congestion, long transmission distances, and inefficient routing.
Some key difference between a Public and Private IP Address?
| Feature | Public IP Address | Private IP Address |
|---|---|---|
| Definition | A public IP address is a unique address assigned to a device or network for communication over the internet, allowing it to be globally accessible. | A private IP address is an address assigned to a device within a private network, allowing communication within that network but not directly accessible from the internet. |
| Accessibility | Public IP addresses are accessible from the internet and can be used for communication between devices across different networks. | Private IP addresses are limited to communication within the confines of a private network and are not routable on the internet. |
| Uniqueness | Public IP addresses must be unique across the entire internet to ensure proper communication between devices and networks. | Private IP addresses can be reused within different private networks, as long as they are unique within each network. |
| Assignment | Public IP addresses are typically assigned by Internet Service Providers (ISPs) to individual devices, routers, or networks. | Private IP addresses are assigned by network administrators within a private network according to specific addressing schemes, such as the Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) private address ranges (e.g., 192.168.x.x, 10.x.x.x, 172.16.x.x - 172.31.x.x). |
| Usage | Public IP addresses are used for accessing the internet, hosting servers or services accessible globally, and facilitating communication across the internet. | Private IP addresses are used for internal communication within a local area network (LAN), such as accessing local resources, printers, or devices, and facilitating communication between devices within the same network. |
| Security | Public IP addresses are exposed to the internet and require additional security measures, such as firewalls and intrusion detection systems, to protect against external threats. | Private IP addresses are inherently more secure since they are not directly accessible from the internet, reducing exposure to external threats. However, internal network security measures, such as access controls and encryption, are still necessary to safeguard against internal threats. |
QoS (Quality of Service) is a set of techniques used to manage network traffic and ensure reliable performance for critical applications by prioritizing certain types of traffic. It addresses issues like bandwidth management, latency, jitter, and packet loss, ensuring that high-priority services receive the necessary network resources.
STP (Spanning Tree Protocol) is used to prevent network loops in Ethernet networks with redundant links. It creates a loop-free logical topology by blocking certain redundant paths, ensuring there is only one active path between any two network nodes. This prevents broadcast storms and ensures network stability.
A broadcast domain is a network segment where any broadcast sent by a device is received by all other devices within that segment. Routers typically separate broadcast domains, while switches and hubs do not. Limiting broadcast domains can improve network performance and security by reducing unnecessary traffic.
A collision domain is a network segment where data packets can collide when sent simultaneously by devices. Collisions cause network inefficiency and delays. Switches and routers create separate collision domains for each port, reducing collisions, while hubs place all connected devices in the same collision domain.
Port forwarding is a network technique used to redirect communication requests from one address and port number to another, often used to allow external devices to access services on a private network. It enables remote access to specific applications like web servers, gaming servers, or remote desktop services.
A mesh network is a type of network topology where each node is interconnected with multiple other nodes, creating a redundant and fault-tolerant system. It provides high reliability and coverage, as data can take multiple paths to reach its destination, reducing the risk of network failures.
A routing table is a database in a router that stores routes to various network destinations. It contains information like destination IP addresses, subnet masks, next-hop addresses, and interface details. The router uses this table to determine the best path for forwarding data packets to their destinations.
A network protocol is a set of rules and conventions that govern how data is transmitted and received across a network. Protocols ensure proper communication and interoperability between different devices and systems. Examples include TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP, and SMTP, each serving different purposes in network communication.
Link-state routing protocols build a complete map of the network's topology to determine the best path for data packets. Each router independently calculates the shortest path to every other network node using algorithms like Dijkstra's. Examples include OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) and IS-IS (Intermediate System to Intermediate System).
Distance vector routing protocols determine the best path for data packets based on distance metrics, typically the number of hops to the destination. Routers periodically share their routing tables with neighbors. Examples include RIP (Routing Information Protocol) and IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Protocol).
Some key difference between Active and Passive FTP.
| Feature | Active FTP | Passive FTP |
|---|---|---|
| Data Connection | Uses two separate TCP connections for data transfer: one for control (commands) and one for data. | Uses a single TCP control connection for commands, but data transfers occur over a separate TCP connection initiated by the client. |
| Data Port | The server initiates a data connection to the client on port 20 for data transfer. | The client initiates a data connection to the server on a dynamically allocated port for data transfer. |
| Firewall Compatibility | May encounter issues with firewalls and NAT devices, as it requires incoming connections to client ports. | More firewall-friendly, as data connections are initiated by the client and outgoing from the server, allowing easier configuration in restrictive network environments. |
| Security | The server has greater control over data connections, potentially exposing client ports to external connections. | Provides better security, as the client initiates data connections, reducing the risk of unauthorized access through exposed ports. |
| Usage | Suitable for scenarios where the server has more control over network configurations and can accept incoming connections to client ports. | Preferred in environments with strict firewall policies or when clients are behind NAT devices, as it allows data connections to be initiated by the client. |
Network congestion occurs when a network node or link is overloaded with data, causing delays and packet loss. It typically results from high traffic volumes, insufficient bandwidth, or inefficient routing. Congestion can degrade network performance, leading to slower response times and reduced quality of service.
A stateful firewall tracks the state of active connections and makes decisions based on the context of the traffic. It monitors the state and characteristics of network connections, allowing or blocking traffic based on rules and the connection's state, providing a more sophisticated level of security compared to stateless firewalls.
A VPN tunnel is a secure, encrypted connection established between two points over a public network, like the internet. It ensures that data transmitted between these points is private and protected from interception. VPN tunnels are commonly used for secure remote access and site-to-site connections.
Some key difference between Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast?
| Feature | Unicast | Multicast | Broadcast |
|---|---|---|---|
| Target | One sender and one receiver | One sender and multiple specified receivers | One sender and all possible receivers within the network segment |
| Transmission | Data is sent from a single source to a specific destination address | Data is sent from a single source to multiple predefined destination addresses | Data is sent from a single source to all devices within the network segment |
| Network Traffic | Generates less network traffic compared to multicast and broadcast | Generates moderate network traffic, depending on the number of recipients | Generates the most network traffic as data is sent to all devices |
| Efficiency | Highly efficient for one-to-one communication | Efficient for one-to-many communication, reducing redundant data transmission | Least efficient as all devices in the network segment receive the data |
| Examples | Traditional client-server communication, such as web browsing | Streaming video, IPTV, video conferencing | ARP (Address Resolution Protocol), DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) |
| Addressing | Uses the unique IP address of the receiver | Uses specific multicast group addresses (e.g., 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255) | Uses the broadcast IP address (e.g., 255.255.255.255 or the network broadcast address) |
| Security | Provides greater security as data is sent to a specific recipient | Offers moderate security, but requires appropriate network configuration to control access to multicast groups | Offers the least security as data is accessible to all devices in the network segment |
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) is used for diagnostic and error-reporting purposes in networks. It helps identify connectivity issues by sending messages like Echo Request and Echo Reply (used in the ping command) to test network reachability and trace routes, facilitating troubleshooting and network management.
Network redundancy involves designing a network with multiple pathways and components to ensure continuous availability and reliability. Redundant paths, devices, and connections help prevent single points of failure, minimizing downtime and maintaining network performance even during hardware failures or maintenance.
MTU (Maximum Transmission Unit) defines the largest size of data packets that can be transmitted over a network medium. Setting the appropriate MTU size ensures efficient data transfer, reducing the need for fragmentation and reassembly, which can cause delays and increased overhead.
The TTL (Time to Live) field in an IP packet specifies the maximum number of hops the packet can take before being discarded. Each router along the path decreases the TTL value by one. When it reaches zero, the packet is discarded, preventing it from looping indefinitely in the network.
some key difference between Static and Dynamic Routing?
| Feature | Static Routing | Dynamic Routing |
|---|---|---|
| Routing Table | Requires manual configuration of routing tables on routers. | Automatically updates routing tables based on network topology changes and routing protocols. |
| Configuration | Static routes are manually configured by network administrators. | Dynamic routes are automatically determined and updated by routing protocols. |
| Scalability | Less scalable, as manual configuration becomes impractical for large networks. | More scalable, as routers dynamically adjust routes based on network changes. |
| Flexibility | Less flexible, as changes require manual updates to routing tables. | More flexible, as routers adapt to changes in network conditions without manual intervention. |
| Maintenance | Requires more maintenance and oversight to ensure routing tables are up-to-date and accurate. | Requires less maintenance, as routers self-adjust routes based on dynamic updates. |
| Convergence Time | Convergence time is typically slower, as changes must be manually implemented. | Convergence time is faster, as routers quickly adapt to topology changes using dynamic updates. |
| Example Protocols | Commonly used for small, stable networks or specific routes in larger networks. | Examples include RIP (Routing Information Protocol), OSPF (Open Shortest Path First), EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol), and BGP (Border Gateway Protocol). |
An access point (AP) is a networking device that allows wireless devices to connect to a wired network. It acts as a bridge, extending the reach of the wired network to wireless clients. APs provide Wi-Fi connectivity, enabling mobile and portable devices to access network resources and the internet.